Preservation of the Antarctic environment is of primary importance to those
that live and work on the continent. Historically this has not always been the
case. All who have a presence in Antarctica operate in an international atmosphere
of cooperation under the auspices of the Antarctic Treaty. With a presence comes
a responsibility for stewardship of the values and resources that make Antarctica
an oasis for science. While often referred to as the most pristine place left
on the planet, people have in fact been going to Antarctica for more than a
hundred years (Scott,
Amudsen, and Shackelton).
Commercial taking of animals at the end of the nineteenth and early twentieth
century impacted the populations of several species of whales and seals. Also
left behind are the remnants of whaling stations that have altered the environment
of some Antarctic islands, such as South Georgia and Deception Island (a
map), in the southern ocean. It is believed that the continued
harvesting of some species in Antarctic waters is significantly depleting natural populations raising concerns about the sustainability
of these resources. In addition, the numbers of people traveling to
Antarctica to conduct science, support research, and as tourist
continue to rise
IAATO. The increased presence of people in Antarctica brings about a variety of pressures on the
environment and in some cases has resulted in the deterioration of environmental quality and health in the local area.
Since the signing of the Treaty on Environmental Protection, various protocols and addendums have
been agreed to, many relating to environmental concerns in Antarctica. Of most
recent interest, is the coming into force of the Environmental Protocol, which
is also referred to as the 1991 Madrid Protocol. As well, at the behest of the
Treaty, SCAR has formed groups of experts to address specific issues ( i.e.,
the Group of Specialists on Environmental Affairs on Conservation, GOSEAC
and organize a series of workshops to deliberate
and provide advice on environmental issues. Of particular importance to monitoring
is a series of workshops, the first occurring in Buenos Aires in 1991. The workshops
culminated with a pair of workshops sponsored by SCAR and the Council of Managers
of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP)
held in Oslo, Norway and College Station, Texas in 1995 and 1996 . These
workshopes were held to specifically address monitoring of environmental impacts
of science and support operations. The workshops were attended by more than
120 participants from 22 countries. The report from this workshop laid out a
fundamental approach to developing monitoring programs and provide advice and
guidance on a range of important issues.
Within the US Antarctic Program (USAP),
administered by the National Science Foundation's Office of Polar Programs
(NSF/OPP), environmental issues are addressed based on a range of legislation
and laws (NSF page Dallas presentation). The US presence in Antarctica is
jointly managed by several agencies and bodies including the National Science
Foundation (NSF), the National Academy
of Science (NAS) National
Research Council's (NRC) Polar research Board (PRB),
the State Department, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
The National Science Foundation's Office
of Polar Programs
is the lead US agency for science and research in both the Arctic and
Antarctica. The NSF OPP administers the US Antarctic Program (USAP)
including review and award of proposals for research and oversight of
all logistics and operational support including the three US stations
in Antarctica. The NAS/NRC Polar Research Board provides advice and
guidance to the US Antarctic Program on science issues. The PRB also
serves as the US National Antarctic Committee appointing US delegates
to SCAR and its
working groups. The State Department, as the foreign affairs arm of the US government,
deals with all Treaty related issues for the US. NOAA has a mandate to deal
with issues related to marine resources including those in the Southern Ocean
and interfaces with the Convention on the Conservation of Living Marine Resources
(CCMLAR). Recently the EPA has been
tasked with addressing issues related to tourism in Antarctica originating
from tour operators in the US.
The coming into force of the Protocol on Environmental Protection in 1999 brought
with it a requirement for all Antarctic treaty nations to conduct monitoring
to gauge the environmental impact of its operations. While only fully ratified
in the last year, USAP has conducted its operations as if the protocol were
in effect since it was agreed in 1991. Based on the SCAR and COMNAP workshop
and national legislation, the NSF is initiating a program for long term monitoring.
While the workshop reports provided valuable information about the conceptual
context and fundamental design considerations for monitoring programs, the next
step was to develop a plan for implementation. The NSF OPP contracted GERG to
conduct a year of planning to translate the workshop findings into a comprehensive
monitoring program. During the year of planning four
reports were written that provided the basis for an overall monitoring
program at the US's largest scientific station, McMurdo Station. These reports
included a compilation of historical information that has been collected at
the station, a consideration of appropriate spatial and temporal scales for
monitoring, the selection of indicators most appropriate for a monitoring program,
and finally a design for a pilot project. The program was designed to be three
phases, the first of which was the planning phase described above. The second
is a three year pilot project to test the design assumptions and the methods
employed to provide a refinement of the program design. The final phase will
be the implementation of a long-term or permanent observing system to document
the performance of the station into the future based on what was learned in
the pilot project. Phase II, the Pilot Project is the program descibed here.
The GERG Team was deployed to Antarctica to begin the first year of a three year pilot project to design and implement a long-term monitoring of McMurdo Station to detect and document impacts related to science and operations at McMurdo.
The condition of the snow cover at each location was documented by
digital photography. Many different types of disturbance were recorded
in the area. The most common contamination of the snow appeared to be
from topsoil entrained onto the ice by the various activities. Upon
return to the laboratory the snow and ice was allowed to melt and pH,
salinity, and total suspended solids (TSS) were determined from the
melt water. The second melt water was also submitted for analysis of
nutrients (ammonia, nitrate, nitrite, and phosphate) and major anions
and cations. The solids recovered by filtering the melt water will be
returned to the US for determination of metal, content. All of this
information will be used to assess the originof the material entrained
onto the ice and the importance of this input the underlying marine
sediments.
A major focus of the first year effort is to establish a network
of sampling sites around McMurdo Station to better understand the
distribution of contaminants and to highlight any areas of special
concern. In order to do this, a grid of several hundred sites was
constructed.
At each of these sites a series of measurements are made and samples
are collected for later analysis. At each site the location is
documented in a digital photograph, the depth of permafrost is measured
by a probe, the slope of the site is determined with an inclinometer,
and the level of disturbance is noted. In addition a 125 ml glass jar
and a 6 ounce whirlpak is filled with soil.
The whirlpak is subsampled in the laboratory for determination of total
organic and inorganic carbon. The remaining material is refrigerated at
4 degrees centigrade for return to the US for grain size determination.
The jar of soil is frozen at –20 degrees centigrade for storage and
transport to the US where hydrocarbons (fuel) and metal content will be
determined. The data produced will be used to develop thematic maps of
the station area and to developing a better understanding of the
distribution of contaminants at the station (hydrocarbons and metals).
A wide variety of data is to be collected and produced by
analyzing the "soil" samples collected throughout the McMurdo area. The
extensive laboratory facilities at McMurdo station make the real time
analysis of some parameters possible. Some parameters must be analyzed
soon after collection because the constituents of interest degrade upon
storage. The production of data on location also allows for a revision
in the sampling plan by reviewing the results in real-time. The field
data is collected in a variety of ways including visual observations
(per cent disturbance, level of disturbance), probes (permafrost
depth), and digital photography. Other types of data involve the
processing and analyzing of samples. For snow and ice melt water pH is
determined by electrode. The electrode is calibrated with known buffer
solutions and then the pH of the sample is measured by immersing the
electrode in the melt water. Salinity of the melt water is also
measured by a probe based on conductivity. Suspended solids or
particulate matter is determined by filtering the melt water through a
polycarbonate filter that has been weighed prior to filtering. The
material retained on the filter is determined by difference and
concentration is calculated by dividing the sample weight by the volume
of melt water filtered. Carbon content in soils and sediments is
determined by combustion at high temperature using a carbon analyzer
and measuring the carbon dioxide euulued. Other methods for
hydrocarbons and metals are more involved and require extensive
laboratory facilities. Once samples are returned to the US clean
methods, highly precise and accurate methodologies, and established
quality objectives are key to producing high quality data.
This section of the page will be routinely updated to provide a review of progress to date in completing the project.
